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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">acp</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Acta Colombiana de Psicología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Act.Colom.Psicol.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0123-9155</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Universidad Catolica de Colombia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14718/ACP.2020.23.2.7</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Evidence for the Factorial Validity of the Beck Hopelessness Scale in Spanish with Clinical and non-Clinical Samples</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Hermosillo-De la Torre</surname>
						<given-names>Alicia Edith</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Méndez-Sánchez</surname>
						<given-names>Cecilia</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>b</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>González-Betanzos</surname>
						<given-names>Fabiola</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>c</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>a</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, México ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-56362065</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Aguascalientes</city>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>b</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, México ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3079-5129</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Aguascalientes</city>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>c</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia, México ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4585-7211</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás Hidalgo</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Morelia</city>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label><sup>*</sup></label> Calle Francisco Villa 450, Col. Dr. Miguel Silva, Morelia, Michoacán, México. Tel.: (52) 14433958130. <email>fbetanzos@umich.mx</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
				<month>12</month>
				<year>2020</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>23</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<fpage>159</fpage>
			<lpage>169</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>10</day>
					<month>10</month>
					<year>2018</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>18</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2019</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>22</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2019</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the internal structure of the Spanish adaptation of the Beck Hopelessness Scale (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al., 1974</xref>) given its usefulness and relevance in the prediction of suicidal behaviors. The responses to the scale of 1260 university students (M = 4.79, <italic>SD</italic> = 4.29) and of a clinical sample in which 150 young people with suicide attempt of high lethality (M = 8.51, <italic>SD</italic> = 2.38) participated were analyzed. The internal structure of the scale is examined by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in three phases. In the first phase, the original model is compared with four models found in the different adaptations to Spanish; in the second phase, models that analyze acquiescence are taken into account, and in the third phase, a cross-validation of those models with a clinical population is made. The results indicate that the scale is one-dimensional both in the case of clinical samples (χ2 = 154.84, gl = 135, p &lt;0.001, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.03), as well as in the general population. However, for the latter, a method factor was added for the treatment of acquiescence (χ2 = 252.14, gl = 134, <italic>p</italic> &lt;0.001, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.03). The results show the importance of using analyzes and models that consider the nature of the data and the characteristics of the sample to provide more solid evidence for construct validity.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title><italic>Keywords:</italic></title>
				<kwd>adaptation</kwd>
				<kwd>hopelessness</kwd>
				<kwd>validity</kwd>
				<kwd>suicidal risk</kwd>
				<kwd>acquiescence</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="4"/>
				<table-count count="6"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="53"/>
				<page-count count="11"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>In 1967 Aaron Beck, the American psychiatrist, proposed that hopelessness is one of the elements of the cognitive triad of depression and depressive symptoms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck, Weissman, Lester &amp; Trexler, 1974</xref>). Recent studies point out that hopelessness is a determinant factor in the study of the causes of depression (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">González, et al., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Vives &amp; Dueñas, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Waszczuk, et al., 2016</xref>) and a powerful indicator of suicidal ideation and intent in clinical samples (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al., 1974</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Gheihman et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Klonsky, et al., 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Nissim et al., 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Steer, Kumar &amp; Beck, 1993</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Troister, D'Agata &amp; Holden, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Wang, et al., 2015</xref>) and non-clinical samples (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aliaga, et al., 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Horwitz, et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Mikulic, et al., 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Mitchell, et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Ribeiro, et al., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Suárez-Colorado, et al., 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref>pointed out that despair is not a diffuse emotional state, vague and difficult to quantify in scientific studies; on the contrary, it is a construct that refers to an organized system of negative expectations about one's future and one's own person. From this they developed the Despair Scale (BHS), with the purpose of providing the scientific and clinical community with a reliable, sensitive and easy to use tool to assess the state of hopelessness.</p>
			<p>The BHS is a dichotomous scale that has demonstrated adequate psychometric properties in several countries (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Hanna et al., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Madeira, et al., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Mystakidou et al., 2008</xref>). In the case of the Spanish language version, several translations and adaptations have been made in Spanish-American countries such as Spain, Peru, Colombia, Argentina and Mexico, in which its usefulness as one of the most used techniques in the clinical field has been confirmed for the screening of depression and suicide risk (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aliaga et al., 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bobes, et al., 2002</xref>; Córdova &amp; Rosales, 2011; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">González, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Mikulic et al., 2009</xref>). However, these works have not been able to replicate the original factorial structure or the one recently proposed for adaptation to other countries (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Innamorati et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Kocalevent et al., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Steer, Beck &amp; Brown, 1997</xref>).</p>
			<p>It has been observed that the different factorial structures found vary according to the type of sample of the studies (i.e. whether they are clinical or non-clinical samples), as well as to the procedure used for the factorial analysis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Beck &amp; Steer, 1993</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Boduszek &amp; Dhingra, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Steer et al, 1997</xref>). For example, in the original study, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref> applied a scale to the psychiatric population hospitalized because of a suicide attempt. For construct validity, the authors made an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) utilizing main components as a method of extraction of factors and varimax rotation. The results identified three factors: the first factor was called <italic>Feelings About the Future;</italic> the second factor was called <italic>Loss of Motivation;</italic> and the third factor was called <italic>Future Expectations.</italic></p>
			<p>In the case of adaptations to the Spanish language, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Mikulic et al. (2009)</xref>applied the scale adapted to 377 individuals of the general population in Argentina, obtaining a reliability of 0.78 and three factors that are grouped differently from the original study.</p>
			<p>In Peru, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aliaga et al. (2006)</xref>conducted a study with non-clinical, clinical and medical samples that belonged to one of seven groups, namely: individuals who attempted suicide, people who suffered depression, hypertension, individuals who could suffer from asthma or tuberculosis, schizophrenia, cocaine users and general population. This study obtained a moderate alpha (0.80) and in the factor analysis six factors were identified; in addition to that, the scale showed to be sensitive identifying people with depression and suicidal ideation.</p>
			<p>In Colombia, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">González (2009)</xref>utilized the Spanish translation of the basic Bank of Instruments for their clinical practice (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bobes et al., 2002</xref>) and it was applied to 543 participants, mainly students of psychology; the analysis of the psychometric properties showed a moderate reliability (0.83) and the factor analysis yielded five dimensions.</p>
			<p>In Mexico, the scale has been applied to suicidal psychiatric hospital patients (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Almeida-Montes et al., 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Ibarra, et al., 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Quintanilla, et al., 2003</xref>), to hospitalized patients suffering from some illness or psychiatric condition (Jaime, Blum &amp; Romero, 2009), to individuals who sought external medical appointments (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Borges, et al., 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Mondragón, et al., 1998</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Satorres et al., 2018</xref>), and to students (Córdova et al., 2011; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Lazarevich, Delgadillo &amp; Rodríguez, 2009</xref>). The factorial analysis performed in the research carried out by Córdova et al. (2011) showed three dimensions where there is only coincidence in the factor of feelings about the future proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974</xref>), but not in the other two factors.</p>
			<p>Up until now, the studies of the BHS in the Spanish versions have used exploratory factor analysis with main components as a method of extracting factors, even though this method is considered unwise for dichotomous scales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Choi, Peters &amp; Mueller, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Freiberg, et al., 2013</xref>). At the same time, the internal structure has not been tested by confirmatory factor analysis and no comparisons have been made to determine whether the factorial structure of the scale is the same in the non-clinical population and in people who have had a suicide attempt to determine whether there is equivalence in the scale structure between these two conditions.</p>
			<p>Currently, other countries are debating whether the BHS is a one-dimensional or multidimensional scale (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Innamorati et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Pompili, et al., 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Steer, Beck &amp; Brown, 1997</xref>). Recently, the discussion has focused on the concern of whether there is a bi-factorial structure of optimism/ pessimism, where optimism is assessed with the items that were built with a positive view (i.e. &quot;I see the future with hope and enthusiasm&quot;), and pessimism with those built with a negative view (i.e. &quot;The future seems vague and uncertain&quot;). While the one-dimensional view is conceived with both phases truly as a measure of a single substantive construct of psychopathology: hopelessness.</p>
			<p>On the other hand, it must be taken into account that construct validity for balanced scales is particularly difficult, such as the case of BHS, since these scales are designed to avoid acquiescence having the same number or approximately the same number of direct and inverse items. In these cases, the items tend to group according to their semantic contents (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Vautier &amp; Pohl, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Vautier, et al., 2004</xref>). In fact, in the exploratory factor analysis of balanced scales, factors arised that are not based on the theoretical dimension but on the polarity of the item, which is known as a method factor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Savalei &amp; Falk, 2014</xref>), meaning that the two-factor structure of the BHS could be the cause of the method used (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Innamorati et al., 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>Since the questionnaire is widely used to measure hopelessness in suicide risk situations, these aspects have important clinical implications. Therefore, the objective of this study is to analyze the internal structure of the Beck's Hopelessness Scale, in a sample of university students and another one of young people with suicide attempts of high lethality, comparing the models proposed in the adaptations to Spanish and the original model, as well as alternative models that take into account the nature of the scale and the samples studied.</p>
			<p>The analysis of the internal structure is done using confirmatory factor analysis through structural equation models with a robust estimator for dichotomous items with abnormal distribution, which is appropriate in this type of scales. This research performed three analyses. In the first one, the adjustment of all the proposed models of the different translations into Spanish is compared with the original structure proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref>in a sample of university students. In a second one, the models that have been suggested for the analysis of acquiescence are analyzed, -in this case compared to a model that contains a factor method with two basic models, the model of a general factor (hopelessness) and the model of two correlated factors (optimism/pessimism) -; in a third one, these models are applied to a sample of people who have had suicide attempts, to observe the adjustment in this particular sample.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="methods">
			<title>Method</title>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Participants</italic></title>
				<p>The total sample consisted of1410 participants from two samples. Sample &quot;A&quot; was composed of 781 undergraduate students at the <italic>Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes</italic> [Autonomous University of Aguascalientes] (721 women and 539 men) chosen through a non-probabilistic sampling of eight out of the ten academic centers, with an age range between 17 and 30 years (M = 19.84, <italic>SD</italic> = 1.94). Sample &quot;B&quot; corresponded to 150 participants (63 women and 87 men) ranging in age between 14 and 37 years <italic>(M=</italic> 23.1, SD= 6.2) who were reported and assisted for suicide attempt of high lethality in the emergency service 911 of the state of Aguascalientes.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Design</italic></title>
				<p>A non-experimental cross-sectional design (a single measurement) was used for a multivariate correlation analysis necessary for factor analyzes and group comparisons.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Instruments</italic></title>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><italic>Beck Hopelessness Scale- BHS</italic> (Beck et al., 1974</xref>) It is a 20-item scale that evaluates negative attitudes about the future; in eleven items the person has to respond to pessimistic statements and in nine to optimistic statements about the future, with false/true response options. Scores range from 0 to 20 where a higher score indicates greater hopelessness.</p>
				<p>The reliability indices of the instrument in Spanish, measured through the Cronbach's alpha have shown some variations (α = 0.78, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Mikulic et al., 2009</xref>, α = 0.80, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aliaga et al., 2006</xref>, α = 0.83, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">González, 2009</xref>).</p>
				<p>The adaptation to the Spanish language used in this study was done according to the standard procedures of inverse translation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Eremenco, Cella &amp; Arnold, 2005</xref>; Van de Vijver &amp; Tanzer, 1997). For the adaptation of the instrument the original version in English of the BHS by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al., (1974)</xref>was used and the translation was done first from the English language to the Spanish language by four bilingual professionals and from the Spanish language to the English language by an expert translator. The original version and the translated version were compared until there were no relevant differences found. After that, a cultural adaptation was done in which expert judges had to analyze the clarity of the instructions and the reactives to eliminate problems of cultural linguistic uses. This scale is known as BHS-UAA.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Procedure</italic></title>
				<p>The 1260 university students were chosen through a non-probabilistic sampling from a total of 25 undergraduate educational programs. First of all, the appropriate authorities were contacted for the evaluation, including the professor, to obtain the informed consent from each of the academic centers, as well as the expressed authorization of the professors to utilize their space and time in class during the evaluation. Subsequently, the students were contacted at their classrooms during their class schedule agreed upon by their professor; they were told about the objectives of the study, as well as the form in which the collected information would be used. After obtaining the informed consent of the students, the instrument in question was applied.</p>
				<p>The clinical sample was chosen in a non-probabilistic manner and consisted of150 young people, of whom 42.7% were men (n = 64) and 57.3% women (n = 86) between 14 and 35 years old with an average age of 23.07 (SD = 6.19). They were treated for high-risk suicide attempt and accepted to be followed up by the state's health system. The calls were received by the 911 emergency telephone service of the State Telecommunications Center C4. The sample was chosen from the database of people who participated in the study called Diagnostic Model for the Prevention of Suicide in Adolescents and Youth of the State of Aguascalientes (UAA PIPS 14-3N).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Data analysis</italic></title>
				<p>Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA) were carried out for the different models proposed in the adaptations to the Spanish language (see <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title><italic>Reliability indexes and factor composition of the original BHS version and of its adaptations to Spanish</italic></title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="https://actacolombianapsicologia.ucatolica.edu.co/article/download/2272/3461/23957"/>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>The Weighted Least Squares Mean and Variance Adjusted estimator (WLSMV) was used for the analysis, which does not assume that the variables are normally distributed, making it more appropriate for CFAs with dichotomous data (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Muthén &amp; Muthén, 2006</xref>). In all cases where the items were the indicators, their dichotomous nature was taken into account by making the factor analysis on the matrix of tetrachoric correlations. The chi-square statistic (χ<sup>2</sup>) is shown to examine the adequacy of adjustment in the CFA (Bollen, 1989), given that this indicator is sensitive to the size of the sample. Therefore, some other complementary adjustment indicators were used to evaluate the fit of the models (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hu &amp; Bentler, 1999</xref>), specifically the Comparative Adjustment Index (CFI), and the Tucker Lewis Index (TLI), as well as the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and the 90% confidence interval for said indicator (90% CI). An acceptable fit of the model is defined by the following criteria: RMSEA &lt; .08 (90% CI), CFI &gt; .90, TLI &gt; .90 (Bentler, 1990; Hu &amp; Bentler, 1999). A good fit is considered if RMSEA &lt; .05, CFI &gt; .95, TLI &gt; .95 (Bentler, 1990; Hu and Bentler, 1999). The analyses were carried out using the MPlus7.1 program (Muthén &amp; Muthén, 2012).</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results">
			<title>Results</title>
			<p>The data that allow the comparison of models are presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>, which is divided into four sections: in the first three, work was done with sample &quot;A&quot;. In the first one, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref>original model of three factors is adjusted; in the second section the models of adaptations to Spanish are presented, in some cases a viable solution was not reached given that the covariance matrix of the latent variable is not defined in a positive way, in these models an asterisk is placed before its identification. In the third section the following models are presented: the one-dimensional model that has been proposed with clinical samples (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Mystakidou et al., 2008</xref>), the model of two correlated factors of optimism / pessimism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Nissim et al., 2010</xref>) and a model of one dimension with a general factor for acquiescence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Savalei et al., 2014</xref>). This model attempts to capture the individual tendencies to use the response categories consistently across the items but in an idiosyncratic way between individuals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abad, Sorrel, Garcia, &amp; Aluja, 2016</xref>). In the last section, the fourth, a cross-validation of the models of the third section is made with the data of the sample &quot;B&quot; which is a clinical sample.</p>
			<p>Adjustment indices indicate that the original model has an acceptable fit (χ2 = 373,713, gl = 167, p &lt;0.001, CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.04) which is better than the models of the previous Spanish adaptations to the proposal in this investigation. However, in the &quot;A&quot; sample of university students the best model is a one-dimensional model in which a method factor is proposed for the treatment of acquiescence (χ2 = 252.14, gl = 134, p &lt;0.001, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.03).</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Table 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title><italic>Model fit indices for the BHS</italic></title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="https://actacolombianapsicologia.ucatolica.edu.co/article/download/2272/3461/23958"/>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p><italic>Note.</italic> Indices; χ2 = chi-square; df = degree of freedom; p = probability; χ2 /gl; chi-square divided by degrees of freedom; CFI = comparative adjustment index; TLI = Tucker Lewis Index; RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error of Approximation, IC = confidence interval. In these models items 5 and 11 are not considered.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>The adjustment indices obtained for the analyzed models are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>. In the sample &quot;A&quot; of university students the best model is a one-dimensional model in which a method factor is proposed for the treatment of acquiescence (χ<sup>2</sup> = 252.14, gl = 134, p &lt;0.001, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.03). Finally, these same models applied to sample &quot;B&quot; of people with attempted suicide show that the instrument is one-dimensional; in this case, the two-factor models and the model for the treatment of acquiescence showed linear dependence between the factors and, therefore, the solution is inadmissible. An excellent fit is observed in the one-dimensional model for sample B (χ<sup>2</sup> = 154.84, gl = 135, p&gt; 0.05, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.03).</p>
			<p>Finally, these same models applied to sample &quot;B&quot; of people with attempted suicide show that the instrument is one-dimensional, the two-factor models and the model for the treatment of acquiescence show linear dependence between the factors and therefore, that the solution is inadmissible. In this case an excellent fit is observed in the one-dimensional model for sample B (χ2 = 154.84, gl = 135, p&gt; 0.05, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.03).</p>
			<p>It is important to note that both item 5 &quot;I have enough time to achieve the things I most want to do&quot;, and item 11 &quot;Everything I can see in the future is more disagreeable than pleasant&quot;, presented non-significant factorial weights (p &gt; 0.05) in all the models, for which it was decided to eliminate them.</p>
			<p>
				<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref> shows the factorial weights (λ) obtained on the general factor we call &quot;Hopelessness&quot;. The items were organized from higher to lower factorial weight in sample &quot;B&quot;, which is where this model presents the greatest adjustment. In the case of sample &quot;B&quot;, item 4 had a low factorial weight (λ = 0.24). However, this same item for sample &quot;A&quot; had an acceptable factorial weight (λ =0.48). All those items whose factorial weights are negative (6, 1, 15, 13, 19, 8, 10 and 3) measure in the case of the two-dimensional model, the dimension called optimism, the reliability analysis using the Kuder - Richarson statistics showed good reliability (KR-20 = .916), while items with a negative view (2, 12, 7, 20, 9, 16, 18, 17, 14 and 4) measure pessimism with a good level of reliability (KR-20 = .926). In the case of the one-dimensional model, the total reliability of the scale was high (KR-20 = .948).</p>
			<p>
				<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref> shows the models with the highest adjustment in each of the samples. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>a. corresponds to the general population sample made up with university students. The factor weights in the factor method are 0.21 for the positive items and -0.21 for the negative items. The standardized factor weights in the figure are those presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref> for the corresponding samples. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>b represents the one-dimensional model for the clinical sample.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figure 1a</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Diagram of the model with the highest adjustment in the sample of university students</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="https://actacolombianapsicologia.ucatolica.edu.co/article/download/2272/3461/23953"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figure 1b</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Diagram of the model with the greatest adjustment in the clinical sample</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="https://actacolombianapsicologia.ucatolica.edu.co/article/download/2272/3461/23954"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t3">
					<label>Table 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title><italic>Weighted Least Square Mean Variance (WLSMV)</italic></title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="https://actacolombianapsicologia.ucatolica.edu.co/article/download/2272/3461/23959"/>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN2">
							<p><italic>Note:</italic> λ = standardized factor loading, SE = standard error, <italic>R</italic>
 <sup>2</sup>
 <italic>= size effect.</italic> The content of the items is presented in Spanish as used in the present study.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="discussion">
			<title>Discussion</title>
			<p>The Beck Hopelessness Scale is one of the most widely used instruments in the clinical field due to its relevance in the study and treatment of depression and the prediction of suicide ideation and attempt. As it has been explained, this is one of the reasons why this instrument has been adapted in a great variety of countries (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Hanna et al., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Madeira et al., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Mystakidou et al., 2008</xref>), not to mention, of course, the adaptations that have been made for the Spanish-speaking population, including the Mexican population (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aliaga et al., 2006</xref>; Bobes et al., 2004; Córdova et al., 2010; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">González, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Mikulic et al., 2009</xref>).</p>
			<p>The purpose of analyzing the factorial validity of the Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS-UAA) and to compare it with clinical and non-clinical samples, has responded to the intention of obtaining more data about its sensitivity, reliability and validity, comparing the different measurement models proposed up to now in the adaptations to the Spanish language, in relation to the model proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref>, as well as carrying out tests with models that take into account the acquiescence. The main concern is to minimize the measurement error and the error of analysis of consistency and construct validity in order to have an instrument with large psychometric and reliable scopes in a population that is at risk of suicide.</p>
			<p>In the present study the BHS-UAA showed a high internal consistency in the two populations studied, it also proved to be sensitive and discriminant in a population with high lethality suicide attempt, so it turns out to be a very useful instrument in the detection of hopelessness. These data are consistent with those reported in the adaptations made in various countries of the world and together offer a strong empirical support on the adequate psychometric functioning of the scale. However, the reported evidence also shows the existence of multiple factor conformations of the scale, susceptible to the study population.</p>
			<p>It is known that the classical factor analysis methods that start from the Pearson correlation matrix tend to oversize the number of factors when the data are dichotomous, especially when there are few items by factor or when the factorial weights are small (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Fava &amp; Velicer, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Garrido, Abad &amp; Ponsoda, 2011</xref>). In the present analysis, these considerations were taken into account and tetrachoric correlations were worked on. In this phase the results indicate that the versions of three factors are better than those that propose more than three factors, even an adjustment of the versions with five and six factors was not achieved since the covariance matrix of the latent variables is not defined positively. A deeper analysis shows correlations greater than one between two factors, which are considered estimates outside the admissible ranges and is a sign that the model is incorrect, the best fit was obtained with the structure factorial proposal proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al., (1974</xref>).</p>
			<p>However, in the analysis of the different factors that have been reported on the hopelessness scale is important to highlight two elements, the first of which considers that the BHS-UAA is an adaptation made in strict adherence to the back-translation method, where the scale developed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref>has been taken as a main source. In this sense, it is a version that adheres faithfully to the principles of the original scale, taking full account of the meaning and content of the original items in the cultural adaptation, thus solving the problems observed in the other adaptations to Spanish. The second element to highlight refers to the type and organization of the items and to the response of the instrument. The BHS-UAA, like the BHS of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref>, is a balanced scale with direct and inverse items, which is very good because it decreases and controls the possible response tendency in those subjects who respond affirmatively to the items regardless of their content, that is, it controls the invalidating factor that acquiescence implies. However, this characteristic makes construct validity analysis more difficult, since the results reflect more the polarity of the items than the theoretical dimension of the construct, in this case the one of despair (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Innamorati et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Vautier, 2004</xref>).</p>
			<p>In this context, the results with university data show that a one-dimensional model in which acquiescence is taken into account is the one that obtains the best adjustment indicators. On the contrary, in the sample of people with attempted suicide who received the instrument through an interview, they have a better adjustment in the one-dimensional model; in fact, the two models in which acquiescence is considered cannot be estimated. This is consistent with the theory, since it is known that the problem of acquiescence is observed especially in samples of normal population where these response tendencies are more likely to be shown, while when the application is done by a professional this tendency disappears.</p>
			<p>Taking the above into account it can be said that the method used to analyze the internal structure of the BHS-UAA is adequate since it considers the use of robust estimators of structural equations for dichotomous items that are not distributed normally. On the other hand, having undergone an adjustment comparison with the factors reported in the different adaptations made to the Spanish language and with the proposal by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974</xref>), the comparison with the models that emerged for the analysis of acquiescence, and the model of the people who have or have not tried to commit suicide, makes the structure of the BHS-UAA so far more robust.</p>
			<p>The results of this study have at least two practical implications, the first is that evidence is provided in relation to the one-dimensionality of the scale, therefore the calculation of three scores on different factors does not make much sense. The second refers to the fact that the application in clinical contexts made by professionals minimizes the probability of errors due to acquiescence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Meisenberg &amp; Williams, 2008</xref>). Finally, it must be pointed out that the present study does not consider clinical samples in which there are low levels of motivation to be evaluated, for example, in the psychiatric population, elderly population (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Tovar, Favela, y Sánchez, 2019</xref>), people with diverse sexual orientation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Avendaño-Prieto, Betancort; Bernal-Aguirre, González-Martínez, Gómez-Sánchez, &amp; Villalobos-Sánchez, 2019</xref>), the chronically ill or in people who use drugs.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
				<label>How to cite this article:</label>
				<p> Hermosillo-De la Torre, A.E., Méndez-Sánchez, C. &amp; González-Betanzos, F. (2020). Evidence for the Factorial Validity of the Beck Hopelessness Scale in Spanish with Clinical and non-Clinical Samples. <italic>Acta Colombiana de Psicología, 23(2),</italic> 159-169. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.doi.org/10.14718/ACR2020.23.2.7">http://www.doi.org/10.14718/ACR2020.23.2.7</ext-link>
				</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="es">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículos</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Evidencias de validez factorial de la Escala de desesperanza de Beck en español con muestras clínicas y no clínicas</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Hermosillo-De la Torre</surname>
						<given-names>Alicia Edith</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>a</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Méndez-Sánchez</surname>
						<given-names>Cecilia</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>b</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>González-Betanzos</surname>
						<given-names>Fabiola</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>c</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>a</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, México ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-56362065</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5">
				<label>b </label>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, México ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3079-5129</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff6">
				<label>c </label>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia, México ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4585-7211</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2">
					<label><sup>*</sup></label> Calle Francisco Villa 450, Col. Dr. Miguel Silva, Morelia, Michoacán, México. Tel.: (52) 14433958130. <email>fbetanzos@umich.mx</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<p>El propósito del presente estudio fue evaluar la estructura interna de la adaptación al español de Escala de Desesperanza de Beck et al. (1974), dada su utilidad y relevancia en la predicción de conductas suicidas. Para esto, se analizaron las respuestas a la escala de 1260 estudiantes universitarios (M = 4.79; <italic>DT</italic> = 4.29) y de una muestra clínica en la que participaron 150 jóvenes con intento de suicidio de alta letalidad (M = 8.51; <italic>DT</italic> = 2.38). Se examinó la estructura interna por medio del Análisis factorial confirmatorio (AFC) en tres fases: en la primera, se comparó el modelo original con cuatro modelos encontrados en las diferentes adaptaciones al español; en la segunda, se tomaron en cuenta modelos que analizan la aquiescencia; y en la tercera, se hizo una validación cruzada de esos modelos con población clínica. Los resultados señalan que la escala es unidimensional tanto en el caso de las muestras clínicas(χ2 = 154.84, <italic>gl</italic> = 135, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.03) como en la población universitaria; sin embargo, a esta última se le añadió un factor de método para el tratamiento de la aquiescencia (χ2 = 252.14, <italic>gl</italic> = 134, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.03). Los resultados muestran la importancia de utilizar análisis y modelos que consideren la naturaleza de los datos y las características de la muestra para aportar evidencias más sólidas para la validez de constructo. </p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title><italic>Palabras clave:</italic></title>
				<kwd>adaptación</kwd>
				<kwd>desesperanza</kwd>
				<kwd>validez</kwd>
				<kwd>riesgo de suicidio</kwd>
				<kwd>aquiescencia</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introducción</title>
				<p>En 1967, Aaron Beck, el psiquiatra estadounidense, planteó que la desesperanza es uno de los elementos de la triada cognitiva de la depresión y de los síntomas depresivos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al., 1974</xref>); en estudios recientes, esta misma se considera un factor determinante en el estudio de las causas de la depresión (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">González et al., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Vives &amp; Dueñas, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Waszczuk et al., 2016</xref>), así como un indicador poderoso de la ideación e intento suicida en muestras clínicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al., 1974</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Gheihman et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Klonsky et al., 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Nissim et al., 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Steer et al., 1993</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Troister et al., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Wang et al., 2015</xref>) y no clínicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aliaga et al., 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Horwitz et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Mikulic et al., 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Mitchell et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Ribeiro et al., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Suárez-Colorado et al., 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>Específicamente, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref> señalan que la desesperanza no es un estado emocional difuso, vago y difícil de cuantificar en estudios científicos, sino que, por el contrario, es un constructo que hace referencia a un sistema organizado de expectativas negativas sobre el propio futuro y la propia persona. A partir de esto, dichos autores desarrollaron la Escala de Desesperanza (BHS, por sus siglas en inglés), con el propósito de proporcionar a la comunidad científica y clínica una herramienta confiable, sensible y fácil de utilizar para evaluar el estado de desesperanza.</p>
				<p>La BHS es una escala dicotómica que ha demostrado propiedades psicométricas adecuadas en varios países (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Hanna et al., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Madeira et al., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Mystakidou et al., 2008</xref>). Incluso, en la versión en español se han hecho diversas traducciones y adaptaciones en países hispanoamericanos, como España, Perú, Colombia, Argentina y México, en los que se confirma su utilidad como uno de los instrumentos más generalizados en el ámbito clínico para el tamizaje de la depresión y el riesgo suicida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aliaga et al., 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bobes et al., 2002</xref>; Córdova &amp; Rosales, 2011; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">González, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Mikulic et al., 2009</xref>). Sin embargo, en dichos trabajos no se ha logrado replicar la estructura factorial original, ni la que se ha propuesto recientemente para la adaptación a otros países (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Innamorati et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Kocalevent et al., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Steer et al., 1997</xref>).</p>
				<p>Es importante tener en cuenta que las estructuras factoriales descritas varían según el tipo de muestra (p. ej., si son muestras clínicas o no clínicas) y el procedimiento utilizado para el análisis factorial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Beck &amp; Steer, 1993</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Boduszek &amp; Dhingra, 2016</xref>; Steer et al., 1997). Por ejemplo, en el estudio original, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref> aplicaron la escala a población psiquiátrica hospitalizada por intento de suicidio, y para la validez de constructo llevaron a cabo un análisis factorial exploratorio (AFE) con componentes principales como método de extracción de factores y rotación varimax; en los resultados, los autores identificaron tres factores: al primer factor lo denominaron <italic>Feelings About the Future</italic> (sentimientos acerca del futuro), el segundo factor, <italic>Loss of Motivation</italic> (pérdida de la motivación), y al tercer factor, <italic>Future Expectations</italic> (expectativas sobre el futuro).</p>
				<p>En el caso de las adaptaciones al español, por ejemplo en Argentina, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Mikulic et al. (2009)</xref> aplicaron la escala adaptada a 377 personas de población general, y sus resultados dieron cuenta de una confiabilidad de .78, así como de la presencia de tres factores que se agrupan de forma distinta al estudio original.</p>
				<p>En Perú, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aliaga et al. (2006)</xref> llevaron a cabo un estudio con muestras no clínicas, clínicas y médicas -personas con intento de suicidio, personas con depresión, hipertensos, personas que podían padecer asma o tuberculosis, personas con esquizofrenia, consumidores de cocaína y población general-, donde encontraron un alfa moderado (.80), seis factores y sensibilidad para la identificación de personas con depresión e intento de suicidio.</p>
				<p>En Colombia, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">González (2009)</xref> utilizó la traducción española del <italic>banco de instrumentos básicos para la práctica clínica</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bobes et al., 2002</xref>), la aplicó a 543 participantes, en su mayoría estudiantes de psicología, y el análisis de las propiedades psicométricas mostró una fiabilidad moderada (.83), así como cinco dimensiones distintas a partir del análisis factorial.</p>
				<p>Y en México, la escala se ha aplicado a pacientes de hospitales psiquiátricos con intento suicida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Almeida-Montes et al., 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Ibarra et al., 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Quintanilla et al., 2003</xref>), a pacientes hospitalizados que padecían alguna enfermedad o condición psiquiátrica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Espinosa et al., 2009</xref>), a personas que acudieron a consulta médica externa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Borges et al., 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Mondragón et al., 1998</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Satorres et al., 2018</xref>), y a estudiantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Córdoba &amp; Rosales, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Lazarevich, Delgadillo &amp; Rodríguez, 2009</xref>). De estos, destaca la investigación de Córdoba y Rosales (2011) debido a que el análisis factorial arrojó tres dimensiones, una de las cuales coincidió con el factor de sentimientos sobre el futuro propuesto por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref> -aunque no ocurrió lo mismo con los otros dos factores-.</p>
				<p>Es importante señalar que, hasta el momento, los estudios de validez factorial de la BHS de las versiones en español han utilizado el análisis factorial exploratorio con componentes principales como método de extracción de factores, aun cuando este método se considera poco recomendable para escalas dicotómicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Choi et al., 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Freiberg et al., 2013</xref>); además, no han probado la estructura interna mediante análisis factorial confirmatorio; y no han hecho comparaciones para establecer si la estructura factorial de la escala es la misma en población no clínica que en personas que han tenido intento de suicidio -esto para identificar si hay equivalencia en la estructura de la escala entre estas dos condiciones-.</p>
				<p>Actualmente, en otros países se debate sobre si la BHS es unidimensional o multidimensional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Innamorati et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Pompili et al., 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Steer et al., 1997</xref>), y, en los últimos años, la discusión se ha enfocado en la preocupación de si existe una estructura bifactorial de optimismo/ pesimismo, en la que el optimismo se evaluaría con los ítems que se construyeron con una visión positiva (p. ej., &quot;Veo el futuro con esperanza y entusiasmo&quot;), mientras que el pesimismo se mediría con los que se construyeron con una visión negativa (p. ej., &quot;El futuro me parece vago e incierto&quot;). Por el contrario, la visión unidimensional concibe que estas dos fases son en realidad la medida de un único constructo sustantivo de la psicopatología: la desesperanza.</p>
				<p>Ahora bien, debe tenerse en cuenta que la validez de constructo es particularmente difícil para escalas balanceadas, como es el caso de la BHS, ya que estas escalas están diseñadas para evitar la aquiescencia y tienen el mismo número o aproximadamente el mismo número de ítems directos e inversos, de modo que, para estos casos, los ítems tienden a agruparse a partir de su contenido semántico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Vautier &amp; Pohl, 2009</xref>; Vautier et al., 2004). De hecho, en el análisis factorial exploratorio de escalas balanceadas surgen factores que no están basados en la dimensión teórica, sino en la polaridad del ítem -a lo que se conoce como <italic>factor de Método</italic>- (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Savalei &amp; Falk, 2014</xref>), lo cual significa que la estructura bifactorial de la BHS podría ser causa del método empleado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Innamorati et al., 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>Dado que el cuestionario es ampliamente utilizado para medir desesperanza en situaciones de riesgo de suicidio, los aspectos mencionados tienen implicaciones clínicas importantes, y es por ello que el objetivo del presente estudio fue investigar la estructura interna de la de la Escala de Desesperanza de Beck en dos muestras, una de estudiantes universitarios y otra de jóvenes con intento de suicidio de alta letalidad, para luego comparar los modelos propuestos en este estudio y en las adaptaciones al español con el modelo original, así como con modelos alternativos que tomen en cuenta la naturaleza de la escala y de las muestras estudiadas.</p>
				<p>Cabe mencionar que el análisis de la estructura interna se realiza utilizando el análisis factorial confirmatorio mediante modelos de ecuaciones estructurales con un estimador robusto para ítems dicotómicos con distribución no normal, que es lo apropiado en este tipo de escalas; y que, además, en esta investigación se realizan tres análisis: primero se compara el ajuste de todos los modelos propuestos de las diferentes traducciones al español en relación con la estructura original propuesta por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref> en una muestra de estudiantes universitarios; segundo, se analizan los modelos que se han sugerido para el análisis de la aquiescencia -en este caso, se compara un modelo que contiene un factor de método con dos modelos básicos, el modelo de un factor general (desesperanza) y el modelo de dos factores correlacionados (optimismo/pesimismo)-; y tercero, se aplican estos modelos a una muestra de personas que han tenido algún intento de suicidio, para observar el ajuste en esta muestra en particular.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Método</title>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Participantes</italic></title>
					<p>La muestra total fue de 1410 participantes que provienen de dos muestras: la muestra &quot;A&quot;, conformada por 1260 estudiantes de pregrado de la Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, México (721 mujeres y 539 hombres), elegidos mediante un muestreo no probabilístico de ocho de los diez centros académicos, con un rango de edad que osciló entre los 17 y los 30 años (<italic>M</italic> = 19.84, <italic>DE</italic> = 1.94); y la muestra &quot;B&quot;, que corresponde a 150 sujetos (63 mujeres y 87 hombres), cuyo rango de edad estuvo entre los 14 y los 37 años (<italic>M</italic> = 23.1, <italic>DE</italic> = 6.2), reportados y atendidos por intento de suicidio de alta letalidad por el servicio de emergencias 911 del Estado de Aguascalientes.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Diseño</italic></title>
					<p>Se empleó un diseño no experimental de tipo transversal (una única medida) para un análisis correlacional multivariado, necesario para los análisis factoriales y comparaciones de grupo.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Instrumento</italic></title>
					<p>Se utilizó la Escala de Desesperanza de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck, desarrollada por Beck et al. (1974)</xref>, una escala de 20 ítems que evalúa las actitudes negativas sobre el futuro, que mostró una fiabilidad de .93 en el artículo original. En su diseño, los autores consideraron veinte ítems en total, once que refieren a enunciados pesimistas y nueve a enunciados optimistas sobre el futuro, con opciones de respuesta de &quot;falso&quot; o &quot;verdadero&quot;. De este modo, las puntuaciones van de 0 a 20, donde una mayor puntuación indica una mayor desesperanza. Los índices de confiabilidad del instrumento en español, medidos con el alfa de Cronbach, han mostrado algunas variaciones: α = .78 en el estudio de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Mikulic et al. (2009)</xref>; α = .80 en el de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aliaga et al. (2006)</xref>; y α = .83 en el de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">González (2009)</xref>.</p>
					<p>La adaptación al español que fue utilizada en el presente estudio se realizó teniendo en cuenta los procedimientos estándares de traducción inversa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Eremenco et al., 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Van de Vijver &amp; Tanzer, 2004</xref>), de modo que, para la adaptación del instrumento -en la que se empleó la versión original en inglés de la Escala de Desesperanza de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck (la BHS, de Beck et al., 1974</xref>)-, se realizó una primera traducción del inglés al español -por parte de cuatro profesionales bilingües-; posteriormente, se tradujo la escala de español a inglés -por un traductor experto-; y a continuación se hicieron comparaciones entre la versión original y la versión traducida hasta que no se encontraron diferencias relevantes. Después, se realizó una adaptación cultural en la que jueces expertos debían analizar la claridad de las instrucciones y de los reactivos, para así eliminar problemas de usos lingüísticos culturales. A esta adaptación se le denominó BHS-UAA.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Procedimiento</italic></title>
					<p>Para la obtención de la primera muestra, es decir, los 1260 estudiantes universitarios, se realizó un muestreo no probabilístico de un total de 25 programas educativos de pregrado de la Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, en México. Después, para la evaluación, primero se contactó a las autoridades correspondientes -incluyendo a los profesores- para obtener el consentimiento informado de cada uno de los centros académicos, así como la autorización expresa de los profesores para utilizar su espacio y tiempo de clase durante la evaluación; posteriormente, se contactó a los alumnos en sus aulas durante su horario de clase -acordado con el profesor-, y se les informó sobre los objetivos y fines del estudio, así como la forma en que sería tratada la información recabada; finalmente, tras obtener el consentimiento informado de los estudiantes, se procedió a aplicarles el instrumento en cuestión.</p>
					<p>Por otra parte, la muestra clínica se eligió de manera no probabilística y estuvo conformada por 150 jóvenes, de los cuales el 42.7 % eran hombres (<italic>n =</italic> 64), y 57.3 %, mujeres (<italic>n =</italic> 86), con edades entre los 14 y los 35 años, con una media de 23.07 años (DE <italic>=</italic> 6.19), que fueron atendidos por intento de suicidio de alto riesgo y que aceptaron que se les realizara un seguimiento por el sistema de salud del Estado. Las llamadas fueron captadas por el servicio telefónico de emergencias 911 del Centro Estatal de Telecomunicaciones C4, y los participantes se eligieron de la base de datos de personas que participaron en el estudio denominado Modelo Diagnóstico para la Prevención del Suicidio en Adolescentes y Jóvenes del Estado de Aguascalientes (UAA PIPS 14-3N).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Análisis de datos</italic></title>
					<p>Se realizó un Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio (AFC) para los diferentes modelos propuestos en las adaptaciones al español descritas previamente (véase <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabla 1</xref>). Específicamente, para el AFC se utilizó el estimador Mínimos Cuadrados Ponderados Robustos (WLSMV, por sus siglas en inglés), el cual no asume que las variables deban estar distribuidas normalmente, el método más apropiado para los AFC con datos dicotómicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Muthén &amp; Muthén, 2006</xref>); y, para el análisis del ajuste de los diferentes modelos propuestos por los autores, se tomaron en cuenta diversos indicadores, a saber: (a) el estadístico chi-cuadrado (χ<sup>2</sup>), (b) el índice de ajuste comparativo (CFI), (c) el índice de Tucker Lewis (TLI), (d) la raíz cuadrada del error medio de aproximación (RMSEA), y (e) el 90 % de intervalo de confianza para dicho indicador (90 % CI). Un ajuste aceptable del modelo se define por los siguientes criterios: RMSEA &lt; .08 (90 % CI), CFI &gt; .90, TLI &gt; .90 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Bentler, 1990</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hu &amp; Bentler, 1999</xref>); considerando un buen ajuste si el RMSEA &lt; .05, CFI &gt; .95, TLI &gt; .95 (Bentler, 1990; Hu &amp; Bentler, 1999). Los análisis se realizaron mediante el programa MPlus 7.1 (Muthén &amp; Muthén, 2012).</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t4">
							<label>Tabla 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title><italic>Indices de fiabilidad y composición de factores de la versión original y de las adaptaciones al español de la BHS</italic></title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="https://actacolombianapsicologia.ucatolica.edu.co/article/download/2272/3461/23960"/>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="results">
				<title>Resultados</title>
				<p>Los datos que permiten la comparación de modelos se presentan en la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabla 2</xref>, en la cual se pueden encontrar cuatro apartados: en los primeros tres se trabaja con la muestra &quot;A&quot;, y en el último, con la muestra &quot;B&quot;. En el primer apartado se ajusta el modelo original de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al., (1974)</xref> de tres factores; en el segundo se muestran los modelos de las adaptaciones al español, donde es de destacar que en algunos casos no se alcanzó una solución viable, dado que la matriz de covarianza de la variable latente no está definida de manera positiva -en estos modelos se antepone un asterisco para su identificación-; en el tercero se presentan tres modelos: (a) el unidimensional propuesto con muestras clínicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Mystakidou et al., 2008</xref>), (b) el de dos factores correlacionados -optimismo/pesimismo- (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Nissim et al., 2010</xref>), y (c) el unidimensional con un factor general para la aquiescencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Savalei &amp; Falk, 2014</xref>) -el cual intenta capturar las tendencias individuales de usar las categorías de respuesta de forma consistente a través de los ítems, pero de manera idiosincrática entre los individuos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abad et al., 2016</xref>)-; y, por último, en el cuarto apartado se hace una validación cruzada de los modelos del tercer apartado con los datos de la muestra &quot;B&quot; -una muestra clínica-.</p>
				<p>En general, los índices de ajuste señalan que el modelo original tiene un ajuste aceptable (χ2 = 373.713, gl = 167, p &lt; 0.001, CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.04), mejor que el encontrado en los modelos de las adaptaciones al español previas a la propuesta en esta investigación. Sin embargo, en la muestra &quot;A&quot; (de estudiantes universitarios) el mejor modelo es el tercero, el unidimensional, en el que se propone un factor de método para el tratamiento de la aquiescencia (χ<sup>2</sup> = 252.14, gl = 134, p &lt; 0.001, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.03).</p>
				<p>Estos mismos modelos aplicados a la muestra &quot;B&quot; (de personas con intento de suicidio) muestran que el instrumento es unidimensional (primer modelo), y que el modelo de dos factores y el modelo para el tratamiento de la aquiescencia muestran dependencia lineal entre los factores, razón por la cual la solución es inadmisible. En este caso, se observa un ajuste excelente en el modelo unidimensional para la muestra &quot;B&quot; (χ<sup>2</sup> = 154.84, gl = 135, p &gt; 0.05, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.03).</p>
				<p>Es importante notar que tanto el ítem 5 -&quot;Tengo el tiempo suficiente para lograr las cosas que más quiero hacer&quot;- como el ítem 11 -&quot;Todo lo que puedo ver en el futuro es más desagradable que agradable&quot;- presentaron pesos factoriales no significativos (p &gt; 0.05) en todos los modelos, por lo cual se decidió eliminarlos.</p>
				<p>Por otra parte, en la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabla 3</xref> se presentan los pesos factoriales (λ) sobre el factor general denominado &quot;Desesperanza&quot;. Acá, los ítems están organizados de mayor a menor peso factorial en la muestra &quot;B&quot;, que es donde este modelo presenta mayor ajuste; en el caso de la muestra &quot;B&quot;, el ítem cuatro tiene un peso factorial bajo (λ =0.24), sin embargo, para la muestra &quot;A&quot; este mismo tiene un peso factorial aceptable (λ = 0.48); además, todos los ítems con pesos factoriales negativos (6, 1, 15, 13, 19, 8, 10 y 3) miden, en el caso del modelo de dos dimensiones, la dimensión llamada <italic>optimismo</italic> -donde el análisis de fiabilidad mediante el estadístico de Kuder-Richardson mostró una fiabilidad buena (KR-20 = .916)-, mientras que los ítems con una visión negativa (2, 12, 7, 20, 9, 16, 18, 17, 14 y 4) miden la dimensión denominada <italic>pesimismo</italic> -con un buen nivel de fiabilidad- (KR-20 = .926); y en el caso del modelo unidimensional, la fiabilidad total de la escala fue alta (KR-20 = .948).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t5">
						<label>Tabla 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title><italic>Índices de ajuste de los modelos para el BHS</italic></title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="https://actacolombianapsicologia.ucatolica.edu.co/article/download/2272/3461/23961"/>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN3">
								<p><italic>Nota.</italic> En estos modelos no se consideran los ítems 5 y 11. χ<sup>2</sup> = chi-cuadrada; gl = grados de libertad; p = significancia estadística; χ<sup>2</sup> / gl = chi-cuadrada dividida por grados de libertad; CFI = índice de ajuste comparativo; TLI = índice de Tucker Lewis; RMSEA = error cuadrático medio de aproximación; CI = intervalo de confianza. * No se ha alcanzado una solución viable dado que la matriz de covarianza de la variable latente no está definida de manera positiva.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t6">
						<label>Tabla 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title><italic>Estimaciones estandarizadas mediante el método de mínimos cuadrados ponderados robustos (WLSMV)</italic></title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="https://actacolombianapsicologia.ucatolica.edu.co/article/download/2272/3461/23962"/>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN4">
								<p><italic>Nota.</italic> λ = peso factorial estandarizado, SE = error estándar, <italic>R</italic>
 <sup>2</sup>
 <italic>=</italic> tamaño del efecto.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Finalmente, en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref> se muestran los modelos con mayor ajuste en cada una de las muestras. Específicamente, la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref>a corresponde a la muestra &quot;A&quot; (estudiantes universitarios), donde los pesos factoriales en el factor de Método son de 0.21 para los ítems positivos, y de -0.21 para los ítems negativos, mientras que los pesos factoriales estandarizados de la figura en el factor llamado &quot;Desesperanza&quot; son los que se presentan en la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabla 3</xref> para la muestra correspondiente. Por otra parte, la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 1</xref>b representa el modelo unidimensional para la muestra clínica.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="discussion">
				<title>Discusión</title>
				<p>La Escala de Desesperanza de Beck es uno de los instrumentos más utilizados en el ámbito clínico por su relevancia en el estudio y tratamiento de la depresión, así como por su capacidad para predecir la ideación y el intento de suicidio. Como se expuso, esta es una de las razones por las cuales este instrumento ha sido adaptado en una gran variedad de países (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Hanna et al., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Madeira et al., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Mystakidou et al., 2008</xref>); sin dejar de mencionar, por supuesto, las adaptaciones que se han hecho para población hispanohablante, incluida la población mexicana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aliaga et al., 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bobes et al., 2002</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Córdoba &amp; Rosales, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">González, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Mikulic et al., 2009</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Figura 1a</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Diagrama del modelo con mayor ajuste en la muestra de estudiantes universitarios.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="https://actacolombianapsicologia.ucatolica.edu.co/article/download/2272/3461/23955"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Figura 1b</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Diagrama del modelo con mayor ajuste en la muestra clínica.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="https://actacolombianapsicologia.ucatolica.edu.co/article/download/2272/3461/23956"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>El propósito de analizar la validez factorial de la Escala de Desesperanza de Beck (BHS-UAA) y compararla con muestras clínicas y no clínicas ha respondido a la intención de obtener más datos acerca de su sensibilidad, confiabilidad y validez, lo cual se ha podido lograr al comparar los diferentes modelos de medida propuestos hasta el momento en las adaptaciones al español y su relación con el modelo propuesto por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref>, así como al realizar pruebas con modelos que tomen en cuenta la aquiescencia. Teniendo esto en cuenta, la preocupación fundamental del estudio es reducir al máximo el error de medida y el error de análisis de consistencia y validez de constructo, para así contar con un instrumento con grandes alcances psicométricos que, a la vez, sea confiable en población que esté en riesgo de suicidio.</p>
				<p>De este modo, a partir de los análisis realizados en el presente estudio, la BHS-UAA mostró una alta consistencia interna en las dos poblaciones estudiadas, y, de igual forma, resultó ser sensible y discriminante en población con intento de suicidio de alta letalidad, por lo que demuestra ser un instrumento de gran utilidad en la detección de la desesperanza. Además, estos datos son consistentes con hallazgos reportados en las adaptaciones realizadas en diversos países del mundo, y en conjunto ofrecen un fuerte soporte empírico sobre el adecuado funcionamiento psicométrico de la escala. Sin embargo, la evidencia reportada también exhibe la existencia de múltiples conformaciones factoriales de la escala, susceptibles a la población de estudio, y, de hecho, es sabido que los métodos de análisis factorial clásicos que parten de la matriz de correlaciones de Pearson tienden a sobredimensionar el número de factores cuando los datos son dicotómicos, especialmente cuando hay pocos ítems por factor o cuando los pesos factoriales son pequeños, como ocurre en este caso (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Fava &amp; Velicer, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Garrido et al., 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p>En el presente análisis se tomaron en cuenta estas consideraciones para proponer un método de estimación que parte de la matriz de correlaciones tetracóricas, además de que se prueban los modelos de las adaptaciones en español de la escala, a partir del cual los resultados señalan que las versiones de tres factores son mejores que aquellas que proponen más de tres factores -incluso, no se logró un ajuste de las versiones con cinco o seis factores, dado que la matriz de covarianzas de las variables latentes no está definida de manera positiva-. En un análisis más profundo, se encuentran correlaciones mayores a uno entre dos factores, lo que se puede considerar como estimaciones que están fuera de los rangos admisibles y como un signo de que el modelo es incorrecto. De este modo, se puede afirmar que en la comparación entre el modelo original y las adaptaciones al español los resultados señalan que el mejor ajuste se obtiene con una estructura factorial similar a la propuesta original desarrollada por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref>.</p>
				<p>Adicional a esto, en el análisis de los distintos factores que se han reportado en la escala de desesperanza es importante resaltar dos elementos: el primero, que la BHS-UAA es una adaptación realizada en estricto apego al método <italic>back-translation</italic> (por su denominación en inglés), donde se ha tomado como fuente principal la escala desarrollada por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref>, razón por la cual se trata de una versión que se apega fielmente a los principios de la escala original, atendiendo íntegramente al significado y contenido de los ítems originales en la adaptación cultural, y solventando así los problemas observados en las demás adaptaciones al español; y el segundo, que refiere al tipo y organización de ítems y de respuestas que tiene el instrumento, pues la BHS-UAA, al igual que la BHS de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref>, es una escala balanceada con ítems directos e inversos, lo cual disminuye y controla la posible tendencia de respuesta en aquellos sujetos que responden afirmativamente a los ítems independientemente de su contenido -lo cual quiere decir que esta versión controla el factor invalidante que supone la aquiescencia-. No obstante, esta última característica dificulta el análisis de validez de constructo, ya que los resultados reflejan más la polaridad de los ítems que la dimensión teórica del constructo, que en este caso es la desesperanza (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Boduszek &amp; Dhingra, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Innamorati et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Vautier et al., 2004</xref>).</p>
				<p>En este contexto, los resultados con los datos de los universitarios demuestran que un modelo unidimensional en el que se toma en cuenta la aquiescencia es el que obtiene mejores indicadores de ajuste, y que, por el contrario, en la muestra de personas con intento de suicidio, a quienes se administró el instrumento mediante entrevista, se encuentra un mejor ajuste en el modelo unidimensional sin el factor de aquiescencia -de hecho, los dos modelos en los que se considera la aquiescencia no pueden estimarse-. Esto es consistente con la teoría, pues se sabe que el problema de la aquiescencia se observa especialmente en muestras de población normal, donde es más probable que se muestren este tipo de tendencias de respuesta, mientras que cuando la aplicación la realiza un profesional esta tendencia desaparece.</p>
				<p>Tomando en cuenta lo anterior, se puede afirmar que el método empleado para analizar la estructura interna del BHS-UAA es adecuado debido a que considera la utilización de estimadores robustos de ecuaciones estructurales para ítems dicotómicos que no se distribuyen de forma normal. Asimismo, al haber sometido estos resultados a una comparación de ajuste con los factores reportados en las distintas adaptaciones realizadas al español y con la propuesta original de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beck et al. (1974)</xref>, y gracias a la comparación con los modelos surgidos para el análisis de la aquiescencia -que se aplican tanto a personas con intento de suicidio de alta letalidad como a personas de la población general-, es posible concluir que la estructura del BHS-UAA tiene, hasta el momento, una mayor solidez que el resto de versiones analizadas.</p>
				<p>Finalmente, cabe mencionar que los resultados del presente estudio tienen al menos dos implicaciones prácticas: primero, que se aporta evidencia relacionada con la unidimensionalidad de la escala, por lo cual el cálculo de tres o más puntuaciones en diferentes factores no tiene mayor sentido; y, segundo, que la aplicación en contextos clínicos hecha por profesionales minimiza la probabilidad de errores debidos a la aquiescencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Meisenberg &amp; Williams, 2008</xref>). Sin embargo, es importante señalar que el presente estudio no considera muestras clínicas en las que existan bajos niveles de motivación para ser evaluados, como, por ejemplo, en población psiquiátrica, en población mayor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Tovar et al., 2019</xref>), en enfermos crónicos, en personas con orientación sexual diversa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Avendaño-Prieto et al., 2019</xref>), o en personas que consumen drogas, por lo cual se recomienda para futuras investigaciones incluir este tipo de poblaciones.</p>
			</sec>
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					<label>How to cite this article:</label>
					<p> Hermosillo-De la Torre, A.E., Méndez-Sánchez, C. &amp; González-Betanzos, F. (2020). Evidence for the Factorial Validity of the Beck Hopelessness Scale in Spanish with Clinical and non-Clinical Samples. <italic>Acta Colombiana de Psicología, 23(2),</italic> 148-158. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.doi.org/10.14718/ACR2020.23.2.7">http://www.doi.org/10.14718/ACR2020.23.2.7</ext-link>
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