Do Resources Buffer Job Demands? Evidence From Firefighters’ Burnout and Well-Being

Abstract

This cross-sectional study, grounded in the Conservation of Resources Theory, examined the role of personal (PsyCap) and organizational resources (learning opportunities) in relation to job demands and their association with occupational health among Brazilian military firefighters. The study involved a sample of 1,327 participants, 92.46% operational firefighters and 7.54% officers, recruited from 19 Brazilian states via an electronic survey. Two alternative theoretical models were tested: one examining a linear relationship and the other testing moderate effects between resources and demands. The findings were more consistent with the linear model, indicating that PsyCap was negatively associated with burnout and positively associated with well-being, while learning opportunities were associated with lower burnout levels. However, moderated effects were not statistically significant, suggesting that resources were directly related to occupational health outcomes rather than buffering the relationship between demands and outcomes. The results highlight the relevance of PsyCap as a personal resource associated with occupational health. The study also underscores the role of organizational context and work design in shaping the effectiveness of learning opportunities. These findings suggest that interventions aimed at strengthening personal and organizational resources may improve occupational health indicators among high-risk professionals. The research emphasizes the need for context-sensitive approaches given the unique challenges faced by firefighters. By advancing the understanding of resource-based processes, this study contributes to the broader literature on burnout and well-being in high-risk occupations.

Keywords

Psychological Capital

job demands

learning opportunities

burnout

well-being

References

Ângelo, R. P., & Chambel, M. J. (2013). An intervention with firefighters to promote psychological occupational health according to the job demands-resources model. Revista de Psicologia Social, 28(2), 197–210. https://doi.org/10.1174/021347413806196753

Ângelo, R. P., & Chambel, M. J. (2014). The role of proactive coping in the Job Demands–Resources Model: A cross-section study with firefighters. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 23(2), 203–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2012.728701

Ângelo, R. P., & Chambel, M. J. (2015). The reciprocal relationship between work characteristics and employee burnout and engagement: A longitudinal study of firefighters. Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 31(2), 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2532

Baron, R. A., Franklin, R. J., & Hmieleski, K. M. (2016). Why entrepreneurs often experience low, not high, levels of stress. Journal of Management, 42(3), 742–768. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206313495411

Bartlett, L., Martin, A., Neil, A. L., Memish, K., Otahal, P., Kilpatrick, M., & Sanderson, K. (2019). A systematic review and meta-analysis of workplace mindfulness training randomized controlled trials. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 24(1), 108–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000146

Beaton, D. E., Bombardier, C., Guillemin, F., & Ferraz, M. B. (2000). Guidelines for the process of cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures. Spine, 25(24), 3186–3191.

https://doi.org/10.1097/00007632-200012150-00014

Butler, J., & Kern, M. L. (2016). The PERMA-Profiler: A brief multidimensional measure of flourishing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 6(3), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v6i3.526

Carvalho, T. F. de. (2020). A ciência do florescimento: Adaptação e evidências de validade da escala PERMAProfiler para o contexto brasileiro [Master’s thesis, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro].

Cheung, G. W., & Lau, R. S. (2017). Accuracy of parameter estimates and confidence intervals in moderated mediation models. Organizational Research Methods, 20(4), 746–769. https://doi. org/10.1177/1094428115595869

Cheung, G. W., Cooper-Thomas, H. D., Lau, R. S., & Wang, L. C. (2021). Testing moderation in business and psychological studies with latent moderated structural equations. Journal of Business and Psychology, 36(6), 1009–1033. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-020-09717-0

Chirico, F. (2017). Il burnout è una sindrome o una malattia professionale? Istruzioni per i medici del lavoro. Epidemiologia e prevenzione, 41(5–6), 294–298. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.19191/ep17.5-6.p294.089

Chirico, F., Sharma, M., Zaffina, S., & Magnavita, N. (2020). Spirituality and prayer on teacher stress and burnout in an Italian cohort: A pilot, before-after controlled study. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02933

Chitra, T., & Karunanidhi, S. (2018). The impact of resilience training on occupational stress, resilience, job satisfaction, and psychological well-being of female police officers. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 36, 8–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-018-9294-9

Clauss, E., Hoppe, A., O’Shea, D., González Morales, M. G., Steidle, A., & Michel, A. (2018). Promoting personal resources and reducing exhaustion through positive work reflection among caregivers. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 23(1), 127–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000063

Costa, L. F., Chambel, M. J., & Larentis, F. (2022). Adaptação e evidências de validade da Escala de Demandas Profissionais de Bombeiros Militares Brasileiros (EDP-BM-BR). Revista Psicologia: Organizações e Trabalho, 22(3), 2110–2118. https://doi.org/10.5935/rpot/2022.3.23494

Darvishmotevali, M., & Ali, F. (2020). Job insecurity, subjective well-being and job performance: The moderating role of psychological capital. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 87, 102462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102462

De Clercq, D., Haq, I. U., & Azeem, M. U. (2019). Time-related work stress and counterproductive work behavior: Invigorating roles of deviant personality traits. Personnel Review, 48(7), 1756–1781. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-07-2018-0241

Demerouti, E., & Bakker, A. B. (2023). Job demands-resources theory in times of crises: New propositions. Organizational Psychology Review, 13(3), 209–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866221135022

Doane, L. S., Schumm, J. A., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2012). The positive, sustaining, and protective power of resources: Insights from conservation of resources theory. In K. Törnblom & A. Kazemi (Orgs.), Handbook of social resource theory: Theoretical extensions, empirical insights, and social applications (pp. 301–310). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4175-5_19

Duran, F., Bishopp, D., & Woodhams, J. (2019). Relationships between psychological contract violation, stress and well-being in firefighters. International Journal of Workplace Health Management, 12(3), 120–133. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJWHM-09-2018-0114

Duran, F., Woodhams, J., & Bishopp, D. (2018). An interview study of the experiences of firefighters in regard to psychological contract and stressors. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 30(3), 203–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10672-018-9314-z

Gomes, A. R. (2012). Medida de Burnout de Shirom-Melamed (MBSM). Relatório técnico não publicado [Unpublished technical report]. Escola de Psicologia, Universidade do Minho.https://hdl.handle.net/1822/87555

Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B., & Anderson, R. (2010). Multivariate data analysis: A global perspective (7th ed.). Pearson.

Hirschle, A. L. T., Gondim, S. M. G., Alberton, G. D., & Ferreira, A. S. M. (2019). Estresse e bem-estar no trabalho: O papel moderador da regulação emocional. Revista Psicologia: Organizações e Trabalho, 19(1), 532–540. https://doi.org/10.17652/rpot/2019.1.14774

Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513

Hobfoll, S. (2014). Resource caravans and resource caravan passageways: A new paradigm for trauma responding. Intervention: Journal of Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Conflict Affected Areas, 12(4), 21–32. https://doi.org/10.1097/WTF.0000000000000067

Hobfoll, S. E., & Ford, J. S. (2007). Conservation of resources theory. Encyclopedia of Stress, 151(2004), 562–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012373947-6.00093-3

Hobfoll, S. E., Halbesleben, J., Neveu, J.-P., & Westman, M. (2018). Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5,

103–128. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640

Hobfoll, S. E., Tirone, V., Holmgreen, L., & Gerhart, J. (2016). Conservation of resources theory applied to major stress. In G. Fink (Org.), Stress: Concepts, cognition, emotion, and behavior - Handbook in stress series (Vol. 1, pp. 65–71). Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800951-2.00007-8

Kamei, H., Ferreira, M. C., Valentini, F., Peres, M. F. P., Kamei, P. T., & Damásio, B. F. (2018). Psychological capital questionnaire - short version (PCQ-12): Evidence of validity of the Brazilian version. Psico-USF, 23(2), 203–214. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-82712018230202

Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demand, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2), 285–308. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392498

Karasek, R. A., & Theorell, T. (1992). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life. Basic Books.

Kim, M., Kim, Y. D., & Lee, H.-W. (2020). It is time to consider athletes’ well-being and performance satisfaction: The roles of authentic leadership and psychological capital. Sport Management Review, 23(5), 964–977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.12.008

Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (T. D. Little, Org., 4th ed). The Guilford Press.

Kotze, M., & Massyn, L. (2019). The influence of employees’ cross-cultural psychological capital on workplace psychological well-being. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 45, a1660. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v45i0.1660

Krzeminska, A., Lim, J., & Härtel, C. E. J. (2018). Psychological capital and occupational stress in emergency services teams: Empowering effects of servant leadership and workgroup emotional climate. In L. Petitta, C. E. J. Härtel, N. M. Ashkanasy, & W. J. Zerbe (Eds.), Individual, relational, and contextual dynamics of emotions Research on Emotion in Organizations (Vol.14, pp. 189–215). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

https://doi.org/10.1108/S1746-979120180000014017

Lambert, J. E., Benight, C. C., Harrison, E., & Cieslak, R. (2012). The Firefighter Coping Self-Efficacy Scale: measure development and validation. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 25(1), 79–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2011.567328

Lowery, A., & Cassidy, T. (2022). Health and well-being of first responders: The role of psychological capital, self-compassion, social support, relationship satisfaction, and physical activity. Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health, 37(2), 87–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/15555240.2021.1990776

Luthans, F., & Youssef, C. M. (2004). Human, social, and now positive psychological capital management: Investing in people for competitive advantage. Organizational Dynamics, 33(2), 143–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2004.01.003

Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 60(3), 541–572. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00083.x

Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., Norman, S. M., & Combs, G. M. (2006). Psychological capital development: Toward a micro-intervention. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(3), 387–393. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.373

Manzano-García, G., & Ayala, J.-C. (2017). Relationship between psychological capital and psychological well-being of direct support staff of specialist autism services. The Mediator Role of Burnout. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2277. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02277

Matthews, R. A., & Ritter, K-J. (2019). Applying adaptation theory to understand experienced incivility processes: Testing the repeated exposure hypothesis. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 24(2), 270–285. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000123

Moyer, F., Aziz, S., & Wuensch, K. (2017). From workaholism to burnout: psychological capital as a mediator. International Journal of Workplace Health Management, 10(3), 213–227. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJWHM-10-2016-0074

Ndengu, T., & Leka, S. (2022). Work-related well-being in the Zimbabwean banking sector: A job demandsresources perspective. Safety and Health at Work, 13(2), 220–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2022.03.007

Nikolova, I., Van Ruysseveldt, J., De Witte, H., & Syroit, J. (2014). Well-being in times of task restructuring: The buffering potential of workplace learning. Work & Stress An International Journal of Work, Health & Organisations, 28(3), 217–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2014.929601

Oliveira, K. T., & Moraes, T. D. (2021). Saúde mental e trabalho em profissionais do Corpo de Bombeiros Militar. Revista Psicologia: Organizações & Trabalho, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.5935/rpot/2021.1.21135

Oliveira, S., Carvalho, C., Pinto, A., de Moura, R. C., & Santos-Costa, P. (2023). Emotional labor, occupational identity and work engagement in Portuguese police officers. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 34(4), 768–804. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2022.2162345

Panari, C., Guglielmi, D., Simbula, S., & Depolo, M. (2010). Can an opportunity to learn at work reduce stress?: A revisitation of the job demand‐control model. Journal of Workplace Learning, 22(3), 166–179. https://doi.org/10.1108/13665621011028611

Paterson, H. M., Whittle, K., & Kemp, R. I. (2014). Detrimental effects of post-incident debriefing on memory and psychological responses. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 30(1), 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-014-9141-6

Peng, Y., Zhang, W., Xu, X., Matthews, R., & Jex, S. (2019). When do work stressors lead to innovative performance? An examination of the moderating effects of learning goal orientation and job autonomy. International Journal of Stress Management, 26(3), 250–260. https://doi.org/10.1037/str0000109

Peugh, J., & Feldon, D. F. (2020). “How well does your structural equation model fit your data?”: Is Marcoulides and Yuan’s equivalence test the answer? CBE—Life Sciences Education, 19(3), es5. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.20-01-0016

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879

Regehr, C. (2009). Social support as a mediator of psychological distress in firefighters. Irish Journal of Psychology, 30(1–2), 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/03033910.2009.10446300

Rodrigues-Silveira, C., Chambel, M. J., & Bartone, P. (2023). Organizational affective commitment effects on militaries’ well-being during a deployment: A study of a peacekeeping mission. Military Psychology, 35(1), 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2022.2060031

Sandoval-Reyes, J. G., Riveros-Munevar, F., & Duque-Oliva, E. J. (2020). Propiedades psicométricas de la escala de intensificación de demandas del trabajo a partir de una muestra colombiana. Acta Colombiana de Psicología, 23(2), 40–62. https://doi.org/10.14718/ACP.2020.23.2.3

Sanford, K., Kruse, M. I., Proctor, A., Torres, V. A., Pennington, M. L., Synett, S. J., & Gulliver, S. B. (2017). Couple resilience and life wellbeing in firefighters. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(6), 660–666. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1291852

Scaria, D., Brandt, M. L., Kim, E., & Lindeman, B. (2020). What is wellbeing? In E. Kim & B. Lindeman (Eds.), Wellbeing (pp. 3–10). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29470-0_1

Scott, C., & Myers, K. K. (2005). The socialization of emotion: Learning emotion management at the fire station. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 33(1), 67–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/0090988042000318521

Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Free Press.

Shirom, A., & Melamed, S. (2006). A comparison of the construct validity of two burnout measures in two groups of professionals. International Journal of Stress Management, 13(2), 176–200. https://doi.org/10.1037/1072-5245.13.2.176

Sianoja, M., Syrek, C. J., de Bloom, J., Korpela, K., & Kinnunen, U. (2018). Enhancing daily well-being at work through lunchtime park walks and relaxation exercises: Recovery experiences as mediators. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 23(3), 428–442. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000083

Silva, C. A., & Ferreira, M. C. (2013). Dimensões e indicadores da qualidade de vida e do bem-estar no trabalho.

Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 29(3), 331–339. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-37722013000300011

Silva, E. R., & Larentis, F. (2022). Storytelling from experience to reflection: ERSML cycle of organizational learning. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 33(4), 686–709. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2020.1737831

Sinden, K. E., Sayed, S., MacDermid, J. C., Bolduc, R., & Tellaa, E. (2020). Supporting firefighter mental health during COVID-19: A scoping review. Canadian Institutes of Health Research. https://cihr-irsc.gc.ca/e/52045.html

Singhal, H., & Rastogi, R. (2018). Psychological capital and career commitment: The mediating effect of subjective well-being. Management Decision, 56(2), 458–473. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-06-2017-0579

Siu, O. L., Cheung, F., & Lui, S. (2015). Linking positive emotions to work well-being and turnover intention among Hong Kong police officers: The role of psychological capital. Journal of Happiness Studies, 16(2), 367–380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9513-8

Souza, L. A. S., Torres, A. R. R., Barbosa, G. A., de Lima, T. J. S., & de Souza, L. E. C. (2015). Bem-estar subjetivo e burnout em cadetes militares: O papel mediador da autoeficácia. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 28(4), 744–752. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-7153.201528412

Tisu, L., Rusu, A., Sulea, C., & Vîrgă, D. (2022). Job resources and strengths use in relation to employee performance: A contextualized view. Psychological Reports, 125(3), 1494–1527. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294121997783

Unadkat, S., & Farquhar, M. (2020). Doctors’ wellbeing: Self-care during the covid-19 pandemic. BMJ, m1150. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1150

van den Broeck, A., van Ruysseveldt, J., Smulders, P., & de Witte, H. (2011). Does an intrinsic work value orientation strengthen the impact of job resources? A perspective from the Job Demands-Resources Model. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20(5), 581–609. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594321003669053

van Erp, K. J. P. M., Gevers, J. M. P., Rispens, S., & Demerouti, E. (2018). Empowering public service workers to face bystander conflict: Enhancing resources through a training intervention. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 91(1), 84–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12190

Van Hootegem, A., De Witte, H., De Cuyper, N., & Elst, T. V. (2019). Job insecurity and the willingness to undertake training: The moderating role of perceived employability. Journal of Career Development, 46(4), 395–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845318763893

Vazquez, A. C. S., Pianezolla, M., & Hutz, C. S. (2018). Assessment of psychosocial factors at work: A systematic review. Estudos de Psicologia (Campinas), 35(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-02752018000100002

Wang, J., & Wang, X. (2020). Structural equation modeling: Applications using Mplus (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119422730

Watson, D., Tregaskis, O., Gedikli, C., Vaughn, O., & Semkina, A. (2018). Well-being through learning: A systematic review of learning interventions in the workplace and their impact on well-being. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 27(2), 247–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2018.1435529

Westman, M., Hobfoll, S. E., Chen, S., Davidson, O. B., & Laski, S. (2004). Organizational stress through the lens of COR theory. In P. Perrewe & D. Ganster (Orgs.), Exploring interpersonal dynamics - Research in occupational stress and well being (Vol 4., pp. 167–220). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1479-3555(04)04005-3

White, M., & Kern, M. L. (2018). Positive education: Learning and teaching for wellbeing and academic mastery. International Journal of Wellbeing, 8(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v8i1.588

Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2007). The role of personal resources in the job demands-resources model. International Journal of Stress Management, 14(2), 121–141. https://doi.org/10.1037/1072-5245.14.2.121

Young, P. M., Partington, S., Wetherell, M. A., St Clair Gibson, A., & Partington, E. (2014). Stressors and coping strategies of UK firefighters during on-duty incidents. Stress and Health, 30(5), 366–376. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2616

Zhang, C., Mayer, D. M., & Hwang, E. (2018). More is less: Learning but not relaxing buffers deviance under job stressors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(2), 123–136. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000264

Citations

Citations in Crossref

Citations in Scopus

Google Sholar Citation

Citations in Europe PMC